Tracking the U.S Economy

This will be followed by a personal economic outlook or the remainder of 2014. Current State of U. S Economy: A. Gross Domestic Product (GAP) According to the figures illustrated in the above graph prepared by the Bureau of Economic Analysis (SEA), an agency of the Commerce Department, U. S. Real gross domestic product contracted sharply at an annual rate of 1. 0 percent in IQ 2014 compared to 2. 6 percent in the previous quarter. This marked the first decline in economic growth since January 2011, a period of three years.The drop in GAP growth comes as a revision, down from the BEAK'S original estimate released last April which showed an increase of 0. 1 percent. The BEA announces early estimates based on incomplete and partial data to provide a general picture of economic activity. These estimates are usually revised, with a second and third estimate being released as more data is acquired. The third and last revision for IQ 2014 is due to be released on June 25th and it remains to be seen how the GAP numbers will be affected. So why did the numbers decline so drastically?Many economists blame the anemic growth due to diminished business inventories, and the abnormally, harsh winter the country experienced during the beginning of the year, however, not everyone agrees. Forbes quotes Steve Blitz, chief economist at ITS Investment Research who states, â€Å"Looking through the rest of the report, we see the cold hand of winter, although I am not sure to what extent the cold in the Midwest caused the level of exports to drop by $40. 5 billion while imports only dropped $8. 8 billion. Surely the supply chains weren't frozen in only one direction. Despite the historically, cold weather, there is more to the unexpected, weak performance of the battered U. S economy. Numerous components of the GAP played a hand in causing the decline in economic growth, including a decrease in exports, lack of business investments and decreased government spending. Reduction in rea l exports (real imports, which are a subtracted in the GAP calculation declined as well), accounted for a significant portion of the economic decline, followed by a decrease in inventory investments, non residential fixed investments, residential investments and a cutback in state and local government spending.The GAP ‘s only supporter so far this year came in the form of increased real personal consumer expenditures, which grew from 2. 1 percent from the previous estimate of 2. 0 percent, mainly reflecting sharp increases in services and light increases in other areas. The BEA states, â€Å"The downturn in the percent change in real GAP, primarily reflected a downturn in exports, a larger decrease in private inventory investment, and downturns in nonresidential fixed investment and in state and local government spending that were partly offset by an upturn in federal government spending† (2014).The table below, prepared by the BEA, shows precisely which components of G AP rose and tumbled in IQ 2014. B. Foreign Trade (Exports & Imports) According to records maintained by the U. S Census Bureau and the BEA, exports in April of $193. 3 billion and imports of $240. Billion resulted in a trade deficit of $47. 2 billion, up from $44. 2 billion in March. The April exports were $0. 3 billion less than March exports of $193. 7 billion, but imports were $2. 7 billion more than March imports of $237. 8 billion. The chart produced by the BEA below displays the U. S. International trade in goods and services in a period of two years, from April 2012 to April 2014. Goods deficit in April increased by $3. 3 billion from March to $65. 8 billion and services surplus increased by $0. 2 billion from March to $18. 6 billion. Exports of goods decreased $0. 6 billion to $135. Billion, but imports however increased by $2. 7 billion to $200. 9 billion. Services exports increased by $0. 3 billion to $58. 2 billion and imports followed suit increasing by $0. 1 billion to $39. 7 billion. From April 2013 to April 2014, the goods and services deficit has increased by $6. Billion. Imports in that time period were up by 5. 4 percent or, $12. 4 billion and exports were up by 3. 0 percent, or $5. 6 billion. C. Gross Private Domestic Investments (Business Investment) Gross private domestic investment is a vital component of GAP because it gives us an idea of future productive capacity. It accounts for approximately 14 percent of our GAP and is considered to be the least stable component. The BEA defines gross private domestic investment as private fixed investment and change in private inventories.It is measured without a deduction for consumption of fixed capital and includes replacements and addition to the capital stock, but excludes investment by U. S. Residents in other countries, hence the domestic. The BEA divides business investments into to sub-categories, fixed nonresidential investment, residential investment and business inventories. In short, g ross private domestic investment is n aggregate component of expenditures and includes fixed investments (nonresidential and residential) and change in private inventories.In the above graph from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLESS), the analysis depicts gross private domestic investment data with future projections as far as 2022. The growth rate for the time period of 2002 to 2012 is 0. 6 percent, with negative annual growth rates for all categories of fixed residential structures. However, the annual growth rate in business inventories in this same time period increased from the last decade from -3. 3 percent to 12. 9 percent. They project business inventories to increase by 2022 at an average annual rate of 0. 6 percent. D. Consumer Spending The Consumer Confidence Index increased slightly in May.The index is currently at 83. 0, up from 81. 7 Just last month in April. The BEA recently reported that consumer spending increased to 10914. 40 billion in IQ 2014, up from 10831. 50 billion in Q 2013. U. S. Consumer spending fell for the first time in a year in April 2014 after two months of solid gains, but the decline is probably interim in nature given the strengthening numbers in the Job market. The drop followed a revised 1. Percent increase in March that was the largest gain since August 2009. Real disposable personal income (DIP) remained steady throughout IQ 2014 with a slight decreases in both April and May.E. Unemployment Rate As reported by the Bull's latest economic news release, total nonfat payroll employment increased by 217,000 in May. The increase was due largely to professional and business services, health care and social assistance, leisure and hospitality, transportation and warehousing and temporary services. Employment in other sectors such as manufacturing, mining and logging, construction, wholesale ND retail trade, information and financial services, and government remained steady. The unemployment rate remained unchanged at 6. 3 perce nt. In May, following a decline of 0. 4 percent in April.The number of unemployed persons remained the same in May at 9. 8 million, a decrease of 1. 9 million over the last year. Over the previous year, nonfat payroll employment averaged approximately 197,000 a month. The long term unemployed numbers remained steady at 3. 4 million and accounted for 34. 6 percent of the unemployed. That number has declined by almost a million workers, as the economy continues to gradually recover ND improve. The graph below by the BEA shows the inclines and declines of the unemployment rate since 1990. Updated unemployment figures and charts for June 2014 will be released on July 3, 2014. F.Inflation Rate (ICP) The most recent release by the BLESS states that the ICP for all urban consumers (ICP-U) increased by 0. 3 percent in April on a seasonally adjusted basis. Over the past year, the all items index increased by 2. 0 percent before seasonal adjustment. Gasoline, shelter, and food indexes all ros e in April and so did all items less food and energy. The consumer price index for May will be released on June 17, 2014. G. Government Spending: Fiscal and Monetary Policies According to the data reported by the BEA, current government expenditures exceeded receipts and caused a net government saving of -966. Billion during first quarter of 2014; an increase from Q 2013. Net lending or net borrowing which is an alternative measure of the government fiscal position was -1036. 5 billion, increasing from -968. 7 Q 2013. U. S. Economic Outlook: Remainder 2014 Coming off the harshest winter we've experienced in quite some time, the economy is expected to rebound and continue improving its upward growth in the remainder of 2014. The economy is expected to expand 2. 4 percent with the recovery of the housing market and business investments. Government consumption is expected to slow economic growth this year for the fourth straight year in a row.Consumer spending will remain in the 2 perc ent range, but it's possible that it might increase due to the increase in disposable personal income. This is assuming consumer confidence increases as the year passes. Employment is expected to continue its growth of 180,000-190,000 Jobs gained monthly similar to the previous two years. Structural unemployment will continue to be an issue as most Jobs created will be in he food service and retail industries. Small businesses are expected to gain confidence and provide support to the economic growth in 2014 with a key source of funding that's been missing since the recession; home equity.The increase in home values over the previous year and the ongoing housing recovery is expected to support small businesses. The recovering housing market will play a role in GAP growth as home values continue to rise fueling construction activity leading to an accelerated pace in residential investment. Accelerated business investment will gain approximately 2. 5 percent to around 4. Percent in th e following quarters; driven by hefty gains in nonresidential structures and slight increases in equipment and software expenditures. Growing demand for industrial space will support the increase in business investments.Inflation will rise modestly from the lows of 2013 but will remain humble. Consumer prices will rise as producer prices rise due to global and domestic demand. Net exports will play a leading role and is expected to add to the overall GAP growth. Economists predict a 6. 6 percent rate of growth, along with the support of the oil boom to increase the pace of export activity. U. S. Economic Personal Outlook: 2014 From the extensive research I've done on this topic, my personal outlook on the economy for 2014 in one word, subpart. I expect GAP to grow slightly over the year due to more than one component.Consumer spending is a strong candidate to increase most simply because disposable income is increasing. I understand that we just recently went through a recession and money conservation would be wise, but we're a consumer nation and a consumer based culture, therefore I expect personal consumer expenditures to rise. The winter that affected the nation during the ginning of the year slowed growth but in March, when the weather started to lift consumer expenditures skyrocketed. Personally, it would seem as if consumer confidence is on the rise and the data supports my theory.I believe the increasing home values will embolden consumers and business owners alike and add to economic growth, with businesses leading the way. I feel as if consumers aren't ready to make such a big financial commitment such as a mortgage and the ones willing to take risks will be the entrepreneurs or the business owners, so I expect to see growth in business investments. Residential investments will continue to improve as confidence is restored in the housing market allowing consumers to purchase rental properties to supplement or increase their income.Non residential inv estments will increase as well as values rise due to demand but I'm not quite sure how strong this demand will be. Being the consumer culture we are, I expect us to import more than we export like we have for over a two decades now, however, the strengthening oil and gas sector in the country will gain momentum, gradually relieving us of our oil dependency on OPEC nations in the years to come, decreasing our imports of foreign oil. Economic growth in 2014 may be slow, but it's much better compared to where we were as a nation a couple of years ago.

Literary Analysis on Death of a Salesman Essay

In Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, the conflict between a father and son shapes the overall meaning of the work and explains all of the adverse events that occur throughout. The sources of Willy and Biff’s conflicts, which include Biff’s delusional perception of the world as a result of ideas planted in him by his father, Biff’s discovery of his father’s affair, and Biff’s lack of business success all accumulate and result in the ultimate rivalry between the father and son. Altogether, these contribute greatly to the formation of the concept that personal dreams and desire to achieve success can often negatively interfere with personal relationships, and causing people to loose sight of what is important in our lives, as Willy and Biff exemplify. Throughout the play, there are flashbacks to Biff’s childhood as a successful athlete and motivated individual. Willy’s pride in his son’s accomplishments is apparent, as he constantly praises him saying, â€Å"Good work Biff!† (1561), yet Willy’s lack of acceptance of reality are as well. Frequently Bernard, a studious young boy, appears and reminds Willy of Biff’s unsatisfactory grades, yet Willy refuses to admit these downfalls and does not accept the reality of his son’s situation. Willy merely tells Bernard, â€Å"Don’t be a pest, Bernard! What an anemic!† (1560), and dismisses the negative statements made about Biff. Bernard constantly reappears almost as a symbol of Biff’s conscience, telling him to study or else he will not graduate. Willy does not help the situation and completely combats Bernard’s efforts by filling Biff’s head with lies and selling him on the idea of the American Dream as s omething that is easily achieved, by giving simple advice such as, â€Å"Be liked and you will never want† (1561). It is apparent that Willy weighs the importance of being well-liked and socially accepted more heavily than actual hard work and success, a negative reflection of his character. Willy preaches his philosophy that, â€Å"the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead† (1561). This is purely ironic due to the fact that Willy is the man who creates a personal interest in the business world with men of high status, but when all of his friends pass away he is left with nothing but a glorified past to remember. This false reality that Willy paints for Biff fosters the conflict between father and  son due to the fact that Biff fails as a result of the way he was raised. Biff follows his fathers ways and words, and by the time he takes his first job he has been raised to think that success and happiness will just come to him without excessive effort on his part. As any son would look up to and admire his father, Biff took his father’s advice and therefore makes no excessive efforts and put forth minimal work expecting to become successful merely because of his personality. This sense of entitlement is clearly diminished when Biff fails to keep a job and ends up at home. Willy never takes the time to teach Biff a good work ethic, good values, and strong morals, because Willy himself has not even established these within his own character. Therefore Biff steals, does not work hard, and finds it hard to make it in the real world. Willy himself does not know what is important in life, does not have morals, and does not value his family relationships, therefore he has no way of teaching Biff these vital tools for success and happiness. The resentment Willy feels because of Biff’s lack of success becomes the main conflict throughout the play ultimately reflects negatively upon Willy’s lack of ability to achieve the American dr eam himself, displaying Willy’s overall weak character. Biff’s discovery of his father’s affair serves as a main turning point for him as a character, a turning point that sends him downward into a life of struggle and lack of achievement. It is at this point that Biff loses respect for his father and begins to recognize the lie that he is living, thus making it a main source of conflict. Willy is in denial about his involvement with Biff’s failure in life, and when indirectly confronted by Bernard about the incident in Boston asking â€Å"What happened in Boston, Willy?† (1600), Willy becomes defensive, saying, â€Å"What are you trying to do, blame it on me? Don’t talk to me that way!† (1600). After being told about Biff’s reaction upon his return from Boston and the burning of his favorite University of Virginia shoes that symbolize Biff’s dreams and hopes for the future, Willy realizes the extent of impact that Biff’s discovery of the affair had. Willy’s lack of acc eptance of reality adversely affects his relationship with Biff because he never takes responsibility for his affair or even has the courage to admit it to Biff. As a result, when Biff discovers a woman in his father’s hotel room, he confronts his father, â€Å"You  fake! You phony little fake! You fake!† (1618) and all Willy can do is attempt to exercise his authority as a father which ultimately fails. Frequently throughout the play, Happy makes references to the man Biff used to be, asking him, â€Å"What happened, Biff? Where’s the old humor, the old confidence?† (1552). Learning about his father’s affair and seeing it firsthand that day in Boston was the turning point for Biff, the point where he grew up and realized that his father was a broken and defeated man, not the successful business man he portrayed himself as and used to be. As a result of this, Biff loses all respect for his father, and alternatively Willy begins to loathe Biff as well. Due to his discovery of the affair, Biff not only sees his father as a failed businessman, but a failed man. A man without money does not make him a bad man, but an adulterer who betrayed a woman who gave him everything cannot be forgiven in the eyes of a son. Throughout Willy’s continuous failures and defeats, his wife still remains supportive of him and loving, constantly reminding him of her affection for him. Despite this, Willy still yearns to have what he does not and thus pursues an extramarital relationship with â€Å"the other woman.† It is clear that Willy finds some kind of comfort and validation in this affair with a woman who makes him feel wanted, yet his wife does the same therefore it is clearly a matter of greed. â€Å"Willy’s sense of failure, his belief that he has no right to his wife, despite Linda’s love for him, is what motivates Willy’s deceptions, and those of his sons after him† (Bloom, Bloom’s Modern Critical Interpretations: Death of a Salesman). This event contributes to the overall meaning of the work as a symbol of the failure of the American Dream by Willy, not only in terms of personal success but also in terms of family relationship and his family’s success. Not only does Willy cheat on his wife, loathe his son, and struggle to keep a job, but he has let his values go and seems to have no moral compass of right and wrong. It shows that he has failed in the business aspect of his life, and also in his morals. Finally, Biff’s lack of success in the real world contributes largely to the conflict between him and his father. After having countless jobs over a period of several years, Biff returns home with loss of all hope of finding a steady job to support himself. Willy is disappointed by Biff’s lack of  ability to succeed, and, â€Å"It is to Biff, the returning son, to whom Willy relates most affectively.† (Hadomi, Rhythm Between Father and Son.) It is because Willy can see so much of himself in Biff and relates so heavily to him that these resentful feelings arise. Biff reflects his father’s failed ideals and expectations for himself, which are represented in Willy’s fantasies and flashbacks regarding Biff’s successful and glorious childhood, as well as expectations that Willy originally had for himself. Willy sees his failed life and career as a middle-aged man, and recognizes similar traits and qualities in Biff. Although he never expresses these, it is apparent that Willy largely sees himself in his son and thus takes out his anger for himself on Biff, resulting in constant fighting and conflict. The conflicted relationship between Willy and Biff exemplifies the theme of the work that in one’s pursuit of professional and material success, it is easy to become preoccupied with superficial aspects of life while simultaneously losing sight of what matters most. Willy’s preoccupation with his quest for material fulfillment ultimately results in a flawed relationship with his family, and ultimately with his son Biff when Willy sees him following in his footsteps. This conflict between father and son is what shapes the theme of the work and serves to highlight Miller’s purpose and the greater meaning of the play; that nothing is more important than family. (Word Count: 1517)

Job versus Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Job versus Business - Essay Example Risk in establishing a business is just as great as are the opportunities associated with it. It is quite normal for a business to bring results contrary to the expectations of the owner. Success of a business fundamentally depends upon an individual’s luck. Nevertheless, if risks have been adequately assessed and catered for in the start and the business owner is able to make informed decisions as per the need of the hour, business provides an individual with much more benefits than job. A businessman does not wake up in the morning because he/she will be fined if he/she gets late or does not reach the office in time. Instead, the businessman feels a sense of responsibility to wake up and reach the office in time so that activities go as per the schedule. There is a great difference between the two conditions. In the former, there is fear of accountability whereas in the latter, there is sense of responsibility. Ownership of a business enables an individual to live the life o f a king whereas in a job, an individual’s condition is hardly different from a servant in practical terms. While running a business, one establishes one’s own rules for the others to follow, whereas in the job, one has to follow the rules established by the employer whether or not one finds them right. In the capacity of the owner of a business, one takes decisions that affect others while in the job, others’ decisions affect one. Lack of decision making power in the job does not provide an individual with sufficient room for intellectual growth in the profession. â€Å"You want to leave your mark on the world and change something. Running your own business enables you to do this to a greater extent than you could as an employee† (Robert Ashton, 2010). In addition to that, one can also decide to get rid of bad employees in the business but not in the job. A lot of women employees have to continue working for salary with the colleagues who harass them sex ually (Chaudhuri, 2006). They are not in the position to expel such colleagues from job because they are not business owners. The biggest advantage that business offers in comparison to the job is that it provides an individual with the opportunity to gain maximum benefit of his/her efforts. One may have to exert many times more in the job as compared to the exertion in a business, and yet, the reward in the job is many times less than what one gets in a business. In an attempt to impress the employer so that he would make slight addition to the current salary of the worker, the worker tends to work beyond the official duty hours and yet, there is little realization on the part of the employer in a vast majority of cases. Even if the employer does realize, there is little guarantee that he will appreciate the worker in terms of increment in the salary. After a whole year of extra work, the worker may have a 2 to 5 per cent increment in the salary upon the review of performance. On t he other hand, all profit made from the business becomes the property of the businessman. After one project, when the salaries of all staff have been paid, the business owner is left with an amount that he/she can not assemble after several projects as an employee. In addition to that, there is no retiring in business unlike job. â€Å"Let's say you join a company, degree in hand, at entry level. You move up the ladder for fifteen, twenty, even twenty-five years. Now you're a

I WILL give the topic later Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

I WILL give the topic later - Essay Example Like the induction of electronic and personal health records (EHRs and PHRs), biometric and telemedicine devices and mobile phone applications are helping people to interact with doctor in a more advance and efficient way. The word e-Health is coined for all the domains under the health care sphere. According to the article, it is very important for health care professionals to understand this e-health support infrastructure in order to reap its fruits. Then the article has explained a model in order to explain the future of e-health. In this model the consumers and physicians are surrounded by the layers of the technological tools that are currently used or in near future will be the part of this sector. At the bottom of the chart, information/communication technology has provided platform to consumers for the interaction with the physicians and at the top is the way the physician will communicate, that is web-portal. Then the article further elaborated the chart and the way EHRs have made working easy for the people in this sector. Then the population/communication centric delivery system need and its integration importance with the home based biometric systems are described in the article. According to writer, this idea will help to address challenges and needs like environment, food and socio-economic ones. The writer then with the help David Blumenthal’s six way framework (provider/consumer information flow and communication) tried to explain how the e-health will affect the communication between patient and doctors. He explained that HIT and its software will allow the physicians to learn about patients. It will also provide 24/7 assess to the providers to the patient’s database. This will completely transform the way doctors and patients will communicate because they will communicate now through IT and much more. The article then elaborated the

Uranium processing plant in Tokai Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Uranium processing plant in Tokai - Essay Example criticality (a limited uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction), which continued intermittently for 20 hours.† IAEA remarked the cause as â€Å"human error and serious breaches of security principles† (World Nuclear Association) The accident took place when three workers were fabricating fuel for the JOYO experimental fast breeder reactor. It contained 18.8 percent enriched uranium. Then it was for the first time in three years that this reactor was fuelled and it was also found out that these workers were not professionally qualified and trained for operating such a reactor. The concentration of uranium was in excess inside the reactor which led to the accident and eventually, radioactive products were set out in the building. The workers who were near to the reactor showed symptoms like breathing trouble, nausea etc soon after the incident. The urgency lasted for around 20 hours. The sole cause of the accident was a critical error from the workers, that is, they filled a wrong concentration of uranium nitrate in the tank. The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 which is known as world’s largest nuclear disaster is also said to have occurred due to human errors. A commission of the USSR state committee attributed the flaws to the unscientific design and management of the power plant. The direct cause was similar to that of the Tokai accident. This accident also happened when some inexperienced hands involved in the maintenance of the reactor IV in the power plant. The Three Mile Island disaster which took place in 1979 was also an aftermath of human errors (The Japan Times). Blemishes in the user interface engineering were cited as the cardinal cause for the disaster. This directed to an incorrect understanding of the valve status. This provided another entry to the list of nuclear disasters. In all these cases, it can be noticed that human errors turned out to be the paramount antecedent for the mishaps. It is a known fact that tiny glitches can lead to behemoth

Pharmacy Application Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pharmacy Application - Essay Example It made me wish that I could do something for the people I left behind in Vietnam or at least do something to honor their memory. Some time in 2010, I decided that in order to feel better about my good fortune, of having come to the land of plenty, I needed to give back to the community in memory of those ill people I left in Vietnam. My search for relevant part-time work led me to the Oak Park Regional Medical Center. For more than a year, I did assistant work in the Critical Care Unit Dentistry Department where part of my duties included assisting the dentists with paperwork, sterilizing their tools, filling water pitchers, cleaning out shelves and restocking supplies. While I was working there, I began to observe that the patients who were being treated also had the same complaints as the ones in Vietnam, the medicines were too expensive. But somehow they managed to afford it. I wondered if this case was the same everywhere in America. Then in 2012, I found myself fulfilling my dream of honoring the memory of my countrymen by volunteering at the Shawnee Medical Mission Center. This was the first time that I was exposed to the world of Pharmacy. Here I was tasked to do my part at the In-Patient Pharmacy. My duties here were more important than those that I did at the medical center. I was personally in charge of checking and removing outdated medicines form the supply shelves, as well as labeling medicines. I felt like I was in my element as I did my job there. It felt like the perfect fit for me. So I began to consider a career in Pharmacy. While I was contemplating this idea, I learned that my relative in Vietnam had developed a degenerative nerve disease and she could not afford her medication which only cost $.50 Vietnam cents. She died soon after her diagnosis because they could not afford to medicine. This was the catalyst that I was looking for. My relatives death pushed me to enroll in

What use is the Westminster model of British Government Essay

What use is the Westminster model of British Government - Essay Example A number of alternative models suggest that the future relations modelled is shared a path with Norway. Previously Norway was a non EU member like many states. On the contrary, the â€Å"Norwegian model† has been faced by increased interest from those in Britain wishing to a separate partnership with Brussels whereas at the same time insisting on benefitting from inner markets (Mcannulla, 2006, pg.17). Last autumn, British parliamentarian’s visited Norway to learn on Norwegian EU experience. Issues arose on whether Norwegian style was the viable political option for Britain. Initially, British influenced Norway’s integration in the EU. Both Macmillan and Wilson governments opted for British membership for common markets in the 1960s, and expected Norway’s also to follow suit. Furthermore, as a result of the popular rejection in Norway’s 1972 referendum, the two countries parted ways (Baker & Seawright, 1998, 14). In 2013, Britain and Norway have exceeded forty years on opposite sides on regard to EU membership. In Britain, request for deeper relation with European integration are met with contentions. Domestic debate concerning the current EU relations have shown capacity to initiate tension within and between parties and prone to destruction of any governing coalition. Hindrance exists on partnership between Norway and Britain on EU context (Hay, 2007, pg.10). Arguments for and against devolution was a major issue during the 1997 election campaign devolved power has been an issue with British politics. John Prescott claims that he wants to devolve more power to the geographical area within England. Scotland and Northern Ireland possess their own different cultures not similar with United Kingdom (Beloff, 1996, pg.13). Therefore, to expect residents of these regions to concur with laws, decisions and rules made in London are seen as wrong and irrational. Power should be dispersed from London to other regions. Government in

Use of Ethanol as a Fuel Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Use of Ethanol as a Fuel - Research Paper Example Unfortunately, inside an automobile engine, fuel undergoes incomplete combustion and as a result unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and compounds of sulphur are released, which are extremely dangerous to mankind (Rao, 1989). Many organizations all over the world are participating in developing awareness and making such standards that are environment friendly. Among them is U.S. Environmental Protection Agency EPA which is constantly trying to make such standards and regulations which can lessen the effects of the exhaust of the automobiles on the environment. An Energy Policy Act has been passed by EPA which is considered to be an attempt in fighting energy problems. It contains a national renewable fuel standard program RFS, developed to make use of a certain amount of renewable fuel within transportation fuels. Ethanol is one of the environment friendly gas or liquid recommended in EPA and RFS programs. It is, in actual, the ethyl alcohol found in drinking beverages and it is being used as a transportation fuel too for decades. It is termed as an oxygenating factor for gasoline and is used purposely for oxygenating fuel in many parts of the country. It is blended as an alternative fuel to the gasoline of about 5-10% concentration initially, but now it is mostly in the form of E85 and E100 which contains 85-100% concentration of ethanol alcohol (Renewable Fuel Standard Program. 2011). Using Ethanol as E85 has quantitatively replaced the gasoline in flexible fuel vehicles, which have engines designed for this special purpose so that they are compatible with the high concentration of ethanol. It has a high octane rate than gasoline and thus provides good performance and engine efficiency, but at the same time it has lower energy content and thus it gives less mileage as compared to gasoline of the same amount. United States was the world’s top producer of ethanol with 50 billion liters out of 86.9 billion liters all over the world in the year 2010. Every other car or automobile in US uses a blend of gasoline ethanol up to 10% as it is considered mandatory by the RFS program. There are also a great number of flexible fuel vehicles which use E85 and E100 as a fuel, but it can b e affirmed that more energy is consumed as compared to gasoline (Lichts. 2010). As ethanol is a biofuel, it is mostly seen to be produced from the natural sources and products. Agricultural feed stocks such as sugar cane or corn which are considered renewable are being processed into ethanol by fermentation, distillation and dehydration, when after they undergo the process of photosynthesis for their growth. Petroleum is also a source of ethanol production in the world. About 5% of world’s ethanol is produced by the catalytic hydration of ethylene which is obtained from oil, gas, coal and other petroleum resources. Apart from sugar cane and corn, other feed stocks can also be used for the production of bio-ethanol, which include bagasse, miscanthus, sugar beet, sorghum, grain, switch grass, barley, hemp, kenaf, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, sunflower, molasses, stover, grain, wheat, straw, cotton and other biomass and cellulose harvestings. The only condition is that the process of photosynthesis should completely occur, i.e., plants absorb sunlight for their growth and all the minerals they produce like phosphorus etc should return to the land (Ethanol. 2012). Apart from its

Africana studies final assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Africana studies final assignment - Essay Example Thereafter, the European powers struggled to create a sphere of influence for themselves in Africa. These European powers used various methods to acquire these colonies of which were falsehood to the Africans. They included signing of treaties between African and Europeans, which were vague and were to the advantages of Europeans. They used of force, which used military occupation, for example, Ashanti by British, use missionaries and collaboration. Economic, social and political reasons led acquisition of Africa (Shreuder 90). First, Africa came under colonization for economic reasons as an option for abolition of slave trade. Europe had to have an alternative trade commodity from Africa. Africa was rich in minerals, fertile lands for agriculture and cheap labor. Agrarian revolution and industrialization of the mid-19th century caused European power to rethink about Africa. They needed to increase sources of raw materials for their growing industries. Africa was a rich source of raw materials including iron ore, copper, palm oil, rubber and cotton. Furthermore, these European powers wanted extended markets for their manufactured goods. As consequence, they needed to expand their market in Africa. In addition to this, they wanted to have a share in African trade in gold, ivory and slaves. Some of the European powers established settlements and started cash crop farming and livestock keeping, for example, the Dutch settled in Kenyan highlands. Other than the coast, they began to establish trade contacts wit h long distance traders from the interior where they exchanged items of trade. For these reasons, each European power wanted to secure or safeguard their commercial motivations by exercising political control the over sources of raw material and markets (Okoth 44). Europeans invaded Africa for humanitarian reasons. Other than spreading Christianity, missionaries came to Africa to establish schools as means to civilize Africans and to provide health or medical

Presidential Nomination Races Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Presidential Nomination Races - Essay Example As the preferred son of Ohio, Rutherford B. Hayes had much in his favor in the 1876 race. Both reform and regular Republicans liked him. This was because he was a war hero, who had supported Radical Reconstruction lawmaking and campaigned for Negro suffrage, and emanated from a big swing state (Rutland, 1996). His repute for honesty was exceptional, and his backing of bipartisan boards of state institutions commended him to reformers. Hayes understood that "availability" was his utmost strength. "Availability" worked for Hayes since James G. Blaine, the prime candidate and the preferred nominee for partisan Republicans, was blemished by accusations of corruption. Another contender, Oliver P. Morton, Radical’s favorite, was in ill health. Mr. Benjamin H. Bristow, the favorite nominee of reformers was a denunciation to Grant and Roscoe Conkling, the typical spoils politician, was undesirable to Blaine and to reformers. This meant that none of the contenders could assemble the vo tes of the mainstream convention. Through the fifth ballot, Hayes had collected votes, and by the seventh, he had finalized the nomination. By 1875, the Republican Party was in trouble. A severe economic dejection followed the Panic of 1873 and outrages in the Grant administration had smudged the party's reputation. This led to rising unemployment, falling crop prices and corruption in high places. This augured ill for the Republicans. Ohio Republicans turned to Hayes, their superlative vote-getter, to run against the inescapable Democratic governor.

Jesus’ Blood Never Failed Me Yet Essay Example for Free

Jesus’ Blood Never Failed Me Yet Essay Known as a minimalist and experimental composer, Richard Gavin Bryars unleashed an emotionally intimate constructed piece out from a lone old vagrant singing, Jesus’ blood never failed me yet, this one thing I know, for he loves me so†¦ Originally recorded from footage of a documentary by his friend Alan Power in 1971 (Grimshaw), this aged voice served as the focal point and backdrop for Bryars’ poignant yet challenging work unfolding and reiterating itself over the course of 74 minutes in length. Whereas music that falls under Minimalist movement, sometimes associated the emotional neutralization of repeated materials, Bryars’ has the reverse effect in which rather than numbing the listener’s sensibilities, he heightens them and instead of imposing postmodern indifference toward the subject matter, it forces confrontation with it (Grimshaw). The entire lengthy music might deflate the interest of its listeners as the lines simply repeated over the recording, but Bryars managed to extract the spirit of the tramp’s captive song as he slowly introduced an accompaniment. The first part was merely the sole voice of the old man then eventually enhanced by string quartet, followed by plucked bass and guitar. Moreover, as the instruments subsequently fade out, the tramp’s song continues and eventually underscored by a much richer sounding ensemble of low strings, then woodwinds, brass, and delicate percussion and finally full orchestra and choir (Grimshaw). The soul of the music originated from the compassionate nature of the old vagrant who sang the religious tune during the recording of Power’s documentary that was about the life of street-people around Elephant and Castle and Waterloo in London. Bryars’ recounted; while they are filming the documentary, some people broke into drunken ballad or opera songs, but there was a particular homeless old man sang â€Å"Jesus’ Blood Never Failed Me Yet†. When he played it at home, he noticed the exact tune of the singing to his piano, and, he discerned that the first section of the song that is 13 bars in length formed an effective loop that repeated in a slightly unpredictable way. Therefore, he took the tape to Leicester and copied the loop onto a continuous reel of tape having the idea of adding orchestrated accompaniment to it. During the act of copying, he left the door that lead to the large painting studios, and when he came back, he found people weeping and silently listening over the old man’s singing, at that point, he realized a great emotional influence from the noble faith and tranquil music (Howse), a merely accidental root behind this epic. This particular Bryars’ piece was a breakthrough as there were other versions made during the latter years. Tom Waits singing along with it in 1990 and Jars of Clay released their own version on their album Who We Are Instead in 2003, aside from the fact that it was also used for several theatrical presentations. Covering credits for its very straightforward message to the people, the unyielding constancy of the lyrics—repeated over 150 times—essentially keeps the music from achieving greater feats. It is said that no matter how many times you paint a house, it remains to be the same house. Still, that verse holds together the entirety of the minimalist piece, a factor that you cannot simply neglect. Focusing on keeping his music very simple yet haunting, this composer and double bassist is a native from Goole, East Riding of Yorkshire, England and born on January 16, 1943. His first musical reputation was as a jazz bassist working in the early sixties with improvisers Derek Bailey and Tony Oxley. He abandoned improvisation in 1966 and worked for a time in the United States with John Cage, until he collaborated closely with composers such as Cornelius Cardew and John White. He taught in the department if Fine Art in Portsmouth, Leicester from 1969 to 1978, and there he founded the legendary Portsmouth Sinfonia, an orchestra whose membership consisted of performers who â€Å"embrace the full range of musical competence† — and who played or just attempted to play popular classical works. He also founded the Music Department at Leicester Polytechnic (later De Montfort University) and served as professor in Music from 1986 to 1994. Meanwhile, his first major work as a composer owe much to the so-called New York School of John Cage—with whom he briefly studied, Morton Feldman, Earle Brown and minimalism. His earliest piece was The Sinking of Titanic (1969) and was originally released under Brian Eno’s Obscure Label in 1975 and the Jesus’ Blood Never Failed Me Yet (1971) both famously released in new versions in the 1990s on Point Music Label, selling over a quarter of a million copies. The original 1970s recordings have been re-released on CD by Virgin Records. A major turning point in his development was his first written opera Medea, premiered at the Opera de Lyon and Opera de Paris in 1984. He has written another two operas, both with libretti by his long time collaborator Blake Morrison: Doctor Oxs Experiment, and G, commissioned by the Staatstheater Mainz for the Gutenberg 600th Anniversary. Aside from that, Bryars has also produced a large body of chamber music including three string quartets and a saxophone quartet both for his own ensemble and for other performers. He has also written extensively for strings as well as producing concertos for violin, viola, cello, double bass, saxophone and bass oboe. He has also written choral music, chiefly for the Latvian Radio Choir, with whom he has recently recorded a second CD, and for the Estonian Male Choir. From being a jazz bassist, composer, professor and opera writer, he also made a name as he collaborated with visual artists, worked with choreographers who have used his pieces, and written numerous Laude for the soprano Ana Maria Friman, to name a few. And to date, he recently completed a theatre piece, To Define Happiness, with Peeter Jalakas for Von Krahl theatre in Tallinn, and a project around Shakespeares sonnets, Nothing Like the Sun, with the Royal Shakespeare Company and Opera North. Gavin Bryars is an Associate Research Fellow at Dartington College of Arts and Regent of the College de Pataphysique. And married to Russian-born film director Anna Tchernakova with three daughters and a son. He is currently living in England and British Columbia, Canada. WORKS CITED Howse, Christopher. The Assurance of Hope. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006. xix. ISBN 0-8264-8271-6 Mckeating, Scott. http://www. stylusmagazine. com/articles/seconds/gavin-bryars-jesus-blood-never-failed-me-yet. htm Grimshaw, Jeremy. â€Å"All Music Guide†. http://www. answers. com/topic/jesus-blood-never-failed-me-yet-orchestral-classical-work http://www. gavinbryars. com/ http://www. myspace. com/gavinbryarsmusic http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Jesus%27_Blood_Never_Failed_Me_Yet

Analysis of the DOTS Programme in Nigeria

Analysis of the DOTS Programme in Nigeria Chapter One 1.0  Introduction to TB: Characteristics of Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis is a disease caused by the bacteria known as Mycobacterium tuberculosis.[1] Mycobacterium tuberculosis was identified in 1882 by Robert Koch.[2] It is an acid-fast bacillus and obligate aerobe which grows in about 15 to 30 days at a  temperature of 35 to 37 degrees centigrade in an enriched media with a moderately acid base medium. It has no natural reservoir and its antigenic properties are similar to the leprosy bacillus, the Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) and other typical types of mycobacterium[3]. M. tuberculosis is pathogenic and virulent in nature. Its ability to cause disease depends on the susceptibility of the host as well as the aggressiveness of the invading organism[4] . An electron scan of the bacterium is highlighted below[5]: Considered one of the most dreaded diseases of the 19th and 20th centuries, TB was the 8th leading cause of death in children between the ages of 1 to 4 years old during the early 1920’s especially in the developed countries of the world like the United States and Britain.  As the general standards of living improved in the industrialised nations of the world so too did the decline in TB related incidences. TB is often classed by the â€Å"infection of one of the two variants of the tubercle bacillus which is known to commonly affect man. They are Mycobacerium tuberculosis and bovis†[6]. In Nigeria, majority of the TB related disease is due largely to the M. tuberculosis variant of the tubercle bacillus. The TB infections caused by Mycobacterium bovis which is associated with milk are rare and few and far between[7]. TB can take an â€Å"active and an inactive† state of infection. The Word Health Organisation (WHO) describes an active case of TB as â€Å"a symptomatic disease due to infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis†[8].  TB cases are generally classified as either pulmonary or extra-pulmonary. Patients with pulmonary TB are further sub-divided into â€Å"smear-positive† and smear-negative cases[9]. Smear-positive cases are the most important sub-groups for control programmes as they are the source of infection.  The WHO has defined a smear-positive patient as: A patient with at least two sputum specimens positive for acid-fast bacilli (AFB) by microscopy A patient with at least one sputum specimen positive for AFB and radiographic abnormalities consistent with active pulmonary TB. A patient with at least one sputum specimen positive for AFB, which is culture-positive for M. tuberculosis. A smear-negative patient; on the other hand is also defined by the WHO as:  ·Ã‚  A patient with at least two sputum specimens negative for AFB by microscopy, radiographic abnormalities consistent with active pulmonary tuberculosis and a decision by a physician to treat with a full curative course of anti-TB chemotherapy  ·Ã‚  A patient with a least one sputum specimen negative for AFB, which is culture-positive for M. Tuberculosis; and finally Extra-pulmonary tuberculosis is defined by the WHO as:  ·Ã‚  A patient with a histological and (or) clinical evidence consistent with active extra-pulmonary TB and a decision by a physician to treat with full curative course of anti-TB chemotherapy[10] 1.10  Mode of Transmission: The transmission of Tuberculosis is done mainly through â€Å"droplet infection and droplet nuclei† which is said to be generated when a patient with tuberculosis coughs[11].  For the infection to be transmitted the droplet particles must be fresh in its constituency to carry a viable organism. The spread and transmission of tuberculosis is heightened even further depending on the vigorous nature of the cough and the ventilation provisions in the environment concerned. 1.11  Signs Symptoms: The element of signs and symptoms in Tuberculosis is often misleading in the sense that the human body may harbour the bacterium that causes tuberculosis, and the immune system in the body suppresses the resultant effect and prevents the host from becoming sick. It is as a result of this scenario that the medical profession and doctors make a distinction between what is referred to as â€Å"Latent TB and Active TB† Latent TB is a condition where the patient has a TB infection but the bacteria (†¦) remains in the body in an â€Å"inactive state† and therefore causes no symptoms to be shown.  Latent TB which is often referred to as â€Å"inactive TB† is not known to be infectious. Active TB on the other hand is the contagious wing of tuberculosis and can make its hosts sick.[12] The state of active TB develops some clear signs and symptoms in its diagnosis and they include: Chills and cold spells Fatigue Fever Loss of Appetite Night Sweats Unexplained weight loss[13] Medical evidence has shown that there are varying degrees of Tuberculosis depending on which part of the human body it affects. Tuberculosis often attacks the lungs and its signs and symptoms include:  ·Ã‚  Coughing that laughs for three weeks or more  ·Ã‚  Coughing up blood  ·Ã‚  Chest pain or pain resulting from breathing or coughing[14] Tuberculosis is known to affect other parts of the body of which include the brain, spine or kidneys. The symptoms depend on the organs that are affected. Tuberculosis of the kidney tends to show signs symptoms of bleeding in the patient’s urine whilst Tuberculosis of the spine shows cases of back pain. 1.12  Incubation Periods source http://www.aarogya.com/index.php?option=com_contenttask=viewid=834Itemid=853 1.2  Public Health Importance Standard of Living State of Health In Nigeria The United Nations Human Development (UNDP) programme has through the early 1990s paid greater emphasis in human development, welfare and poverty research.  Through its Human Development Report, it has published the Human Development Index (HDI) which looks beyond GDP to a broader definition of a nation’s well-being. The link in welfare is a determinant index to health conditions, well being of persons and an insight onto their susceptibility and immunity to disease infection[15]. The economic condition of a nation is a guiding factor to growth, development and living standards of a nation’s citizen. The assumption that a citizen who is paid more per capita has his or her standard of living higher than those who are paid less is not often the case.  Levels of livelihood and poverty are not necessary elevated through higher income.   Nigeria has seen a steady rise in its income per capita over the years.  However, a sharp incline in its inflation rate to the economy, poor standard of governance coupled with a dilapidated health care system has seen a decline in its overall standard of living.[16] The graph below shows this comparison when we see the income per capita of a nation like Madagascar over Nigeria whose citizens receive a higher pay package but have poorer living standards which trigger health concerns[17]. The Human Development Index (HDI) provides a composite measure of three dimensions of human development. These areas include:  ·Ã‚  Living a long and healthy life which is measured through life expectancy  ·Ã‚  The level and degree of education and literacy of nation’s citizens.  This is measured by adult literacy and enrolment at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels; and finally,  ·Ã‚  Levels of a decent standard of living which is measured by an individuals level of purchasing power parity (PPP) and income base analysis.[18] Critics of the process have adhered to the fact that the index is not in any sense a comprehensive measure of human development and a way of monitoring standard of living. It does not, for example, include important indicators such as gender or income inequality or other indicators such as respect for human rights and political freedoms. However, what it does provide is a broadened prism for viewing human progress and the complex relationship between income and well-being. In Nigerias context, this index measures the countrys standard of living and state of health by comparing certain key sectors such as life expectancy rates and adult literacy rates.  The chart below gives a unique view to Nigerias position. In this chart, Nigeria has been ranked 158th out of 177 amongst the developing nations of the world with an HDI rating of 0.470.[19] The evaluation of a standard of living is relative, depending upon the judgment of the observer as to what constitutes a high or a low scale. Another relative index to the standard of living of a certain economic group can be gathered from a comparison of the cost of living and the wage scale or personal income. Factors such as discretionary income are important, but standard of living includes not only the material articles of consumption but also the number of dependents in a family, the environment, the educational opportunities, and the amount spent for health, recreation, and social services. Nigeria as a nation has a GDP range of 6.4 as at 2008[20] and the number of dependants vary within the populations in the Northern Southern part of the country. A key example on health grounds are the lifestyles of community citizens in Kano, Kaduna, Zamfara, Sokoto and Bauchi States.  The cultural and religious trends of having a male occupant look after both siblings and relatives within a nuclear family as well as the extended family puts a large burden on cost of living, health standards and living quarters. The research conducted by International medical associations and bodies such as CDC, UNICEF, WHO, Rotary International through the Polio vaccination programme in Kano State are key resources showed a dilapidated and sub-standard level of livelihood amongst the locals in urban regions[21]. Unemployment, low wages, crowded living conditions, and physical calamities, such as drought, flood, political instability, malnutrition etc has brought a drop in the standard of living within such regions in Nigeria. While standard of living may vary greatly among various groups within the country, it also varies from nation to nation, and international comparisons are sometimes made by analyzing gross national products, per capita incomes, or any number of other indicators from life expectancy to clean water. Overall, industrialized nations tend to have a higher standard of living than developing countries. Nigeria is no exception to this theory.   Records have shown that since the mid-1970s almost all regions have been progressively increasing their HDI score.  A key region that has seen a tremendous rise in their standard of living since the early 1990s are East South Asia.  Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); especially Russia and its former Soviet colonies initially had a catastrophic decline in the first half of the 1990s but have recovered and improved their standard of living.[22] The major exception is sub-Saharan Africa in areas such as Niger, Togo, Cameroon and Nigeria. Records have shown that since 1990 standard of living has not improved but stagnated.  Experts believe that this is partly due to economic reversal but principally because of the catastrophic effect of HIV/AIDS on life expectancy.[23] Poverty is the major consequence of the dilapidated and chronic failure in Nigeria’s healthcare and social service system.[24] The access to standard resources such as good education, improved water supply, good nutritional standards and adequate shelter provisions has rendered Nigeria being ranked 80th amongst 108 developing countries with an HPI-1 value of 37.3 as evident in the chart below.[25] These key trends in life expectancy, standard of living and health conditions explains why the 22 nations targeted and responsible for 80% of the world’s TB infections are found in impoverished and developing nations with a poor level of standard of living and health concerns.   1.3  Housing and Poor Sanitation Nigeria; especially Lagos State has had the in-dignified commercial label of being the most expensive slum in the world. This gives a clear insight into the high magnitude of housing inadequacy in both urban rural centres in Nigeria. The dilapidated state of infrastructure and a poor maintenance culture has aggravated the spread of disease and risk in healthy living standards of the vulnerable masses especially in impoverished regions within the country. This can be proven and manifested in both quantitative and qualitative terms. In developed societies such as the United Kingdom (UK), the local authorities are responsible for things like planning permission needed before erecting structures. Nigerias UDB (Urban Development Board) commissions do have rules and regulations in place for buildings, drainage facilities and proper infrastructural displacement but the problem is one of implementation, corruption and share disregard for social, health and economic concerns. This has over the decades given rise to poor sanitary conditions which can be seen through the severe overcrowding and unsanitary environment characterized by housing in the urban centres. The only resultant factor are the culminating effect and growth of slum areas. The deficiency in housing quality, building materials and the design and spacing of buildings is a key aspect of why the spread of diseases such as Meningitis, Cholera, Malaria and Tuberculosis are rampant in the region. Take for example the Northern city of Kano State. A city known for its ancient history and strict adherence to Islamic principles, is also known for its vast close knit network of shanty mud houses that lie in close proximity to one another with barely no room for cross ventilation, proper drainage or sewage facility[26]. Sewage is surface borne with the refuse and excreta of humans and livestock being displayed in the open. The health hazards this poses are many. The question of housing and poor sanitation is nothing new to the African continent and is indeed a key feature in its rural regions which has spread into the urban developed areas of the countries within Africa. The United Nations in 1969 confirmed that the average annual growth rates were 4.7% and 4.6% between the period 1960 and 1980, and 1980 and 2000 respectively. A confirmation of this can be found in the table annexed below.[27] Average Annual Growth Rate Population (Millions) 1960-1980 1980-2000 1960 1980 2000 % % Africa 31 77 190 4.7 4.6 Studies have shown that the rapid rate of urbanisation in Nigeria and the consequential explosion of urban population have not been matched by a corresponding commensurate change in social, economic and technological development[28] The economic down town in the early 1980s saw a break in the level of growth and development with the nation’s economy to that of its population boom[29]. The lack of proper adequate public infrastructure and social services has suffered tremendously and this has affected the process and level of urban planning and zoning in many cases.  A practical example of this can be seen in the newly created Nigerian capital the Federal Capital territory, Abuja. The capital was built by foreign contractors; Julius Berger, with the idea and layout of a suburban aristocratic society with well spaced buildings proper social and infrastructural amenities and health concerns taking into consideration.  But the key problem lay with accommodation and transportation of the work force and working class within the city.   No provisions were made which forced locals to build shanty accommodations unaided by proper planning authorities with little or no regard for health safety issues, sanitary considerations or even building regulations. This idea coupled with the population growth had outpaced the rate of housing provision and created a dilemma in the housing standards and sanitary conditions of millions of its inhabitants.  The spread of diseases both air water borne became eminent and this has been a key problem and contributory factor to disease control in Nigeria.   1.4  Housing and Poverty: The spread of disease can be said to be the resultant consequence of a number of socio-economic factors as well as the action and inaction of government over the years.  Rural areas and indeed some urban regions in Nigerian States, generally lack vital social services and infrastructure services such as clean water, electricity, and good roads. The absence of these amenities constitutes push factors which can be said to have facilitated the migration of rural dwellers into urban centres.   It is note a surprise that the rate of urbanisation in Nigeria far outpaces the rate of economic development.  Despite the enormous amount of money proposed for urban investment in the National Development Plan, very limited investment is made in urban infrastructure.  An increasing shortage of urban services and infrastructure characterize the urban areas, and these are only accessible to a diminishing share of the population.   The existing urban services are overstrained which often times lead to total collapse.  A large proportion of the population does not have reasonable access to safe and ample water supply, and neither do they have the means for hygienic waste disposal. It is eminent that these two services are essential for a healthy and productive life and the lack of it are a key contributory factor to the causes of Tuberculosis.   The quality of the environment in most urban centres in Nigeria is deplorable.  This is not so much dependent on the material characteristics of the buildings but on their organization as spatial units.  The slow process of urban planning and zoning, in the face of rapid urbanisation in most urban centres, has resulted in poor layout of buildings with inadequate roads between them and inadequate drainage and provision for refuse evacuation.  Thus there is a high incidence of pollution through water, solid waste, air and noise and inadequacy of open spaces for other land uses[30]. Studies over the years have shown the deplorable conditions of urban housing in Nigeria. They affirm that 75% of the dwelling units in Nigeria’s urban centres are substandard and the dwellings are sited in slums[31].  This is attributed to the combined effects of natural ageing of the buildings, lack of maintenance and neglect, wrong use of the buildings, poor sanitation in the disposal of sewage and solid waste, wrong development of land, and increasing deterioration of the natural landscape. There are moderate building facilities in Nigeria but the high level of poverty of most urban households places the available housing stock out of their economic reach.  Many of the households resort to constructing make shift dwellings with all sorts of refuse materials in illegally occupied land.  This has led to the growth of squatter settlements in many urban centres.  The buildings therein are badly maintained and lack sanitary facilities with little access to light, air and good water.[32]   The United Nations Standard for Nigeria’s room occupancy is 2.20. The World Health Organization (WHO) stipulates the average rating to be between 1.8 and 3.1, whilst the Nigerian Government prescribed a standard of 2.0 per room.[33]   However, the reality is different as overcrowding is thus a visible feature of urban housing in Nigeria.  It is symptomatic of housing poverty and consequential of poor economic circumstances. 1.5  Prevalence of TB: The term â€Å"prevalence† of Tuberculosis usually refers to the estimated population of people who are managing Tuberculosis at any given time.  Prevalence and mortality are considered by the WHO as direct indicators of the burden of Tuberculosis which indicate the number of people suffering from the disease at a given point in time and subsequently those dying each year.[34] A balance and understanding of these terms aids the improvement of the level of control and effectiveness in treatment thereby reducing the average duration of the disease.  The Stop TB Partnership link spearheaded by the WHO is aimed at reducing by 2015, the per capita prevalence and mortality rates by 50% in comparison to records in 1990.[35] The optimism is reassuring in most regions of the world with the exception of the African continent. The key factors derailing the efforts will be highlighted in the next chapter. In order to determine prevalence levels within a region, resort to statistic by way of a â€Å"population based survey† is often adopted. These surveys are used to estimate prevalence for those countries with proper census records. Another option is to adopt the method of â€Å"estimated incidence† ratings. Estimates of this nature on TB incidences, prevalence and mortality rates are based on a consultative and analytical process proscribed by the WHO and published on an annual basis. Records vary from country to country, however the general formulae used is derived from the following key factors: Estimates of incidence combined with assumptions about the duration of the disease.   The duration of the disease is assumed to vary in accordance with whether or not the disease is â€Å"smear-positive and whether or not the individual receives treatment in a DOTS programme or in a non DOTS programme or is not treated all; and finally Whether or not the individual is infected with HIV[36] According to the WHO, nearly two billion people; about one-third of the world’s population, are infected with TB.[37] In developed regions of the world such as the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States of America (USA), the prevalence levels are much lower than those recorded in high risk regions of the developing world. Statistic records rendered in 2003 from the Department of Health within the UK suggests the following:  ·Ã‚  42 years was the mean age of patients hospitalised with Tuberculosis in England between 2002-2003  ·Ã‚  69% of hospitalisations for Tuberculosis was for 15-59 year olds in England between 2002-2003  ·Ã‚  10% of hospitalisations for Tuberculosis was for over 75 year olds in England between 2002-2003.[38] The goal for Tuberculosis elimination in the United States of America (USA) is a TB disease incidence of less than 1 per million US population by 2010. This requires that the Latent TB Infection (LTBI) prevalence level should be less than 1% and decreasing by 2010.   Current prevalence rate levels of Tuberculosis in the United States are between 10 and 15 million people. In 1998, a total of 18,371 active TB cases were recorded in all 50 states and the District of Columbia[39] A comparison level of statistical studies in the prevalence levels of patients between 1999-2000 was compared to those of patient’s way back in 1971-1972 and the results were as follows: LTBI prevalence was 4.2% with an estimated 11,213,000 individuals diagnosed with LTBI Amongst 25 – 74 year olds, prevalence decreased from 14.3% in 1971-1972 to 5.7% in 1999-2000 Higher prevalence’s were seen in the foreign borns which accounting for 18.7%, non Hispanic blacks and African Americans accounted for 7.0%, Mexican Americans accounted for 9.4% and individuals living in poverty accounted for 6.1% A total of 63% of LTBI was among the foreign born A total of 25.5% of persons with LTBI had previously been diagnosed as having LTBI or TB; and Only 13.2% had been prescribed treatment[40] The chart below; as well as that in â€Å"the annex†, shows the level of new TB cases per 100,000 population and that of prevalence levels in HIV+ people worldwide for the year 2007.[41] 1.6  How Rapid Does TB Spread In Nigeria?: Part of the Federal Governments programme in curbing the spread has been initiated through the National TB and Leprosy Control Programme (NTBLCP) which is seeking to achieve a 70% TB detection rate and an 85% cure rate by the end of 2010 The programme also aims to ensure that TB patients receive adequate drugs and comply with the slated 8 months period of treatment.   Mr Omoniyi Fadare; an NTBLCP Programme Officer is quoted to have said in 2005 that the DOTS programme was being implemented in 584 out of 774 local government areas with the country recording between 700,000 to 1 million TB cases annually out of which 105,000 are TB related deaths.[42] Ideally, the spread of TB should be less bearing in mind that the Nigerian Government has implemented the DOTS strategy in all antiretroviral treatment centres nationwide in an effort to control the spread of Tuberculosis..   However, this is not the case as in 2009 the rate of prevalence had risen to over 1.2 million with an annual mortality rate of 150,000. These statistics question the reasons behind the spread of TB in Nigeria. The spread of TB is made rampant through factors such as poverty and outdated testing equipment which contribute to Nigeria’s high TB prevalence. The lack of awareness, early detection and failure to render immediate treatment are also key factors to the spread of TB in Nigeria as corroborated by Dan Onwujekwe; a Senior Fellow of the Lagos based Nigerian Institute of Medical Research.[43] A recent study carried out by the Nigerian Institute of Medical Research (NIMR) in 2007 found out that of the 620 HIV/AIDS patients surveyed in June and July, 2006, about 160 had TB without knowing they did have the disease.[44]  Other factors which contribute to the growing spread of the disease include: The lack of sufficient drugs and clinics within close proximity of affected regions has heightens the spread of the disease as infected persons and those willing to undergo medical check ups are discouraged from seeking help. Poor laboratory infrastructure needed for testing as well as insufficient man power also plague the success and undermine the effective implementation of the TB control activities. Also worthy of note is limited funding for TB control efforts from the Federal and Sate government authorities. The failure on the part of the authorities stalls the programmes ability to execute necessary activities when due.  The issue of funding is a paradoxical point as it points also to issues of embezzlement and corruption that has plagued the country over several decades of mismanagement. The DOTS programme and TB drugs are relatively cheap and free to the public and yet with adequate funding from NGO’s and governments like the EU and the United States; as indicated in the diagram below[45], the problem of funding still remains a key factor that continues to fuel the spread of the disease. 1.7  Aim: The aim of this study (dissertation) is:  ·Ã‚  To provide an insight into the terminal disease of Tuberculosis on an International and national level  ·Ã‚  To evaluate DOTS implementation in Nigeria using a series of case detection and treatment outcomes as indicators  ·Ã‚  To analyse and evaluate the resulting consequences of the DOTS programme in Nigeria within the 21st century and see if its adoption has favoured a positive control of TB over the years 1.8  Obejetive: The following are the objectives of this study (dissertation):  ·Ã‚  To evaluate case detection rates of smear-positive TB cases in selected areas implementing the DOTS programme within Nigeria  ·Ã‚  To evaluate case detection rates of all TB cases notified in Nigeria within the 21st century  ·Ã‚  To compare Nigerian experiences, failures and progresses to other developing nations and developed countries of the world affected by TB  ·Ã‚  To identify potential weaknesses, strengths and developments in the DOTS programme in Nigeria  ·Ã‚  To create, deliver and analyse a survey on the Nigerian public on the implementation of DOTS in Nigeria within selective states and compare the resulting outcomes with available data 1.9  Research Question: Research questions will be focussed on whether or not the DOTS programme has achieved its object and mandate of reducing the rate of TB infection in Nigeria. Whether or not the target of 2015 by the WHO is a realistic target that can be met by Nigeria? Whether or not Nigeria has made progress over the years with the amount of funding hey have had and the exposure the healthcare system has had to curb the growing threat of TB in the country Whether factors such as cultural, religious, economic and social elements are the cause of the drawback in the successful implementation of the DOTS programme in Nigeria? Chapter Two 2.0  The Federal Republic of Nigeria: Nigeria is located in Western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea and occupies a total area of 923,768 km ² making it the 32nd largest country in the world.[46] It is comparable in size to the South American country of Venezuela and is about twice the size of the State of California in the United States of America.[47] It is bordered by Benin in the West, Niger in the North, Chad in the North West, Cameroon in the East and has a coastline of at least 853  km with the Atlantic ocean.[48] The countrys climatic regions are broken down into three categories – the far south which is defined by tropical rainforest climate with annual rainfall of between 60 to 80 inches per annum, the far north where majority of the TB epidemics and polio incidences have been recorded is defined by its almost desert-like climate where rain fall records are set at less than 20 inches per annum and finally the rest of the countrys region between the far south and far north is characteristic of the savanah grove land with annual rainfalls of between 20 to 60 inches.[49] The country has over 250 ethnic group divisions.[50] The main tribes are the Hausa’s in the Nothern part of the country where majoriy of the TB pandemic is recorded, the Yoruba’s in the Southern part of the country known for is thick mangrove swambs and malaria manifestation and the Igbo’s in the Eastern part of the country where majority of the nations oil explorations and severe environmental degredation oil spilllages are found.[51] In a country ranked as the 8th most populous country in the world, the United Nations (UN) estimated Nigeria’s population at 131,530,000 in 2004.[52] The latest censors in Nigeria in 2006 put the countrys population at 150 million; that is almost 3 times the population of the United Kingdom in an area mass of about less than half the size of Nigeria. It is estimated that by 2050, Nigeria will be one of those countries in the world; like China, India and Brazil, that account for majority of the world’s population.[53] It is indeed a statistical nightmare when one considers that most of the world’s current populous nations are amongs the 22 nations in the DOTS programme. Nigeria as a confederation of states is divided into thirty six (36) states and one Federal Capital Territory (Abuja) which are further divided into 774 LGA’s.[54]  This gives you an idea of the logistical difficulties and task ahead of the DOTS programme in curbing a disease that is catalysed by such vices as poor sanitary conditions and tightly spaced housing plans. Nigeria has six major cities with a population of over 1 million people. They are the cities of Lagos, Kano, Ibadan, Kaduna, Port Harcourt and Benin City.[55]  The city of Lagos alone accounts for 8 million people[56]; a region of about the size of Cardiff. This demography and health hazards surrounding a region in comparision to the capital of Wales which accounts for only 2.9 milion citizens.  A map of the region showing its states and geographical lo

Economic thought from ancient societies

Economic thought from ancient societies INTRODUCTION The oriental school of economic thought basically deals with the study of the origin of economic thought from various ancient societies including the Hindu, Hebrew, Indian, Roman, Greek, and Islamic societies. It has been observed that the main area looked into by the Hebrews and Hindus was based on agricultural economics and all this information was drawn from the writing of the pious law givers who were present at the time. These ancient writings consisted of ideas on various economic aspects such as: division of labour, cottage industries, forest and mines, trade and trading practices, concept of wealth, transport, banking and loans, etc. Some of the writers who also played a role in the development of this economic thought include Roman writers such as Cicero, Pliny Gato, Varro and Columella. During this period, and until the industrial revolution, economics was not a separate discipline but part of philosophy. Its evolution into a distinct discipline of study in the social sciences can be attributed greatly to these early writers. Roman law also developed the contract recognizing that planning and commitments over time are necessary for efficient production and trade. This large body of law was unified as the Corpus Juris Civilis in the 530s AD by Justinian, who was Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. In Ancient India, Chulavamsa records that Parakramabahu of Sri Lanka had debased the currency of Ancient Sri Lanka in order to produce money to support this large scale infrastructure projects. Parakramabahu also pioneered free trade during his reign. Many of the topics discussed during these ancient times are still prevalent in modern economics, including discussions on the management of a solid and efficient economy and the ethics of economics. These ancient thoughts als o focused on issues of welfare, for instance, redistribution of wealth during a famine. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Ancient economic thought is very much wide and its study provides a broad basis for comparison of the ancient approach to economic issues as compared to issues arising in the modern world economies. The large number of ancient thinkers who contributed to this thought differed in beliefs and practices. Also, information on some of these ancient cultural-economic practices is very scanty and thus makes this enquiry into the oriental school of economic thought necessary so as to be able to get a better understanding of the underlying economic issues of both the past and present. JUSTIFICATION With the evolution of economics, many writers have come up with different theories about different areas in the subject. So as to be able to critically assess these different theories and understand the unity which connects us with the ancient times, knowledge on the origin of the early stages of economic thought is necessary for one to be able to take a well informed and unbiased stand on contentious economic issues arising today and hence the need for this study. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY To understand the principles and concepts of the oriental school of economic thought. To know the key contributors of ancient economic thought. To evaluate and criticize how the ancient societies carried out their economic activities. To find out the major contributions of the oriental school of thought to the body of knowledge that exists today. To get a clearer understanding of the position of economics as a distinct member of a group of social sciences. Ancient near East Economic organizations in the earliest civilizations of the Fertile Crescent were driven by the need to efficiently grow crops in the river basins. The Euphrates and Nile Valleys were homes to earliest examples of codified measurements written in base 60 and Egyptian fractions. Keepers of royal granaries and absentee Egyptian land owners reported in the Heganakht Papyri. Historians of this period note that the major tool of accounting for agrarian societies, the sales used to measure grain inventory, reflected dual religious and ethical symbolic meaning. The Erlenmeyer tablets give a picture of Sumerian production in the Euphrates valley around 2, 200 2, 100 B.C., and shows an understanding of the relationship between grain and labour inputs (valued in female labour days) and outputs and an emphasis on efficiency. Egyptians measured work output in man-days. The development of sophisticated economic administration continued in the Euphrates and Nile Valleys during the Babylonian Empi re and Egyptian Empires when trading units spread through the Near East within monetary systems. Egyptian fraction and base 60 monetary units were extended in use and diversity to Greek, early Islamic culture, and medieval cultures. By 1202 A.D, Leonardo Pisa Fibonacci use of zero and Vedic-Islamic numerals motivated Europeans to apply zero as an exponent, birthing modern decimals 350 years later. The city states of Sumer developed a trade market economy based originally on the commodity money of the shekel which was a certain weight measure of barley, while the Babylonians and their city state neighbours later developed the earliest system of economics using a metric of various commodities, which was fixed in a legal code. The early law codes from Sumer could be considered the first (written) economic formula, and had many attributes still in use in the current price system today, such as codified amounts of money for business deals (interest rates), fines in money for wrong doing, inheritance rules, laws concerning how private property is to be taxed or divided, etc. Ancient Greco-Roman world Some prominent classical scholars assert that relevant economic thought was based on metaphysical principles which are incommensurate with contemporary dominant economic theories such as neo-classical economics. However, several ancient Greek and Roman thinkers made various economic observations especially Aristotle and Xenophon. Many other Greek writings show understanding of sophisticated economic concepts. For instance, a form of Greshams law is presented in Aristophanes Frogs, and beyond Platos application of sophisticated mathematical advances influenced by the Pythagoreans in his appreciation of flat money in his Laws: (742 a-b) and in the pseudo-Platonic dialogue, Eryxlas. Bryson of Heraclea was a neo-platonic who is cited as having heavily influenced early Muslim economic scholarship. The influence of Babylonian and Persian thought on Greek administrative economics is present in the work of Greek historian Xenophon. Discussions of economic principles are especially present in his Oeconomicus, his biography of Cyrus the Great, Cyropaedia, Hiero and Ways and Means. Hiero is a minor work which includes discussion of leaders stimulating private production and technology through various means including public recognition and awarding of prizes. Ways and Means is a short treatise on economic development, and showed an understanding of the importance of taking advantage of economies of scale and advocated laws promoting foreign merchants. The Oeconomicus disc uses the administration of agricultural land. In the work, subjective personal value of goods is analyzed and compared with exchange value; Xenophon gives an example of a horse which may be of no use to a person who does not know how to handle it, but still has exchange value. In Cyropaedia, Xenophon presents what in hindsight can be seen as the foundation for a theory of fair exchange in the market which will result in the analysis of better fit or suitability to either party who wants to purchase the same item. Xenophon discusses the concept of division of labour, referencing specialized cooks and workers in a shoe making shop. Marx attributes to Cyropaedia the idea that the division of labour correlates to the size of a market. Roman law developed the contract recognizing that planning and commitments over time are necessary for efficient production and trade. Ancient India Chulavamsa records that Parakramabahu I of Sri Lanka had debased the currency of Ancient Sri Lanka in order to produce monies to support his large scale infrastructure projects. Parakramabahu I also pioneered free trade during his reign, a war was fought with Burma to defend free trade. Chanakya (c. 350 BC 275 BC) considered economic issues. He was a professor of Political Science at the Takshashila University of Ancient India, and later the Prime Minister of the Mauryan Emperor, Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote the Arthashastra (science of material gain). Many of the topics discussed in the Arthashastra are still prevalent in modern economics, including its discussions in the management of an efficient and solid economy. Chanakya also focuses on issues of welfare, for instance, redistribution of wealth during a famine and the collective ethics that hold a society together. The Arthashastra argues for an autocracy managing an efficient or solid economy. The qualities described are in effect that of a command economy. It discusses the ethics of economics and the duties and obligations of a king. Chanakya writes on the economic duties of a king: The king shall be ever active in the management of the economy. The root of wealth is economic activity and lack of it brings material distress. In the absence of fruitful economic activity, both current prosperity and future growth will be destroyed. A king can achieve the desired objectives and abundance of riches by undertaking productive economic activity. Ancient China Ideal and effective economic policy was long sort for in ancient China, one of the greatest early reformers being the Emperor Qin Shi Huang (r. 221 BC 210 BC), who standardized coin currency throughout the old warring states once he unified them under a strong central bureaucracy (which the Zhou dynasty had always lacked). However, one of the greatest reformists in China lived during the medieval Song dynasty (960 1279 AD), that being Chancellor Wang Anshi (1021 1086 AD). Wang Anshis political faction of the New Policies Group enacted a series of reforms that centered on military reform, bureaucratic reform and economic reform. The economic reforms included low cost loans for farmers who he considered the backbone of the Chinese economy in terms of production of goods and the greatest source of the land tax. Replacing the corvee labour service with a tax instead, he enacted government monopolies on crucial industries producing tea, salt, and wine, introduction of local militia to ease the budget spending on the official standing army of one million troops and the establishment of a Finance Planning Commission staffed largely by political loyalists so that his reforms could pass quickly with less time for conservatives to oppose it in court. Medieval Islamic World To some degree, the early Muslims based their economic analyses on the Quran (such as the opposition of riba, interest) and from Sunnah, the sayings and doings of Muhammad. Early Muslim thinkers, Al-Ghazali (1058 1111 A.D.) classified economics as one of the sciences connected with religion, along with metaphysics, ethics and psychology. Authors have noted, however, that this connection has not caused early Muslim economic thought to remain static. Persian philosopher Nasir al-Din-al-Tusi (1201 1274) presents an early definition of economics (what he calls Hekmat-e-madani, the science of city life) in discourse three of his ethics: the study of universal laws governing the public interest welfare: in so far as they are directed, through cooperation, toward the optimal (i.e. perfection). Many scholars trace the history of economic thought through the Muslim world, which was in a Golden Age from the 8th to 13th century and whose philosophy continued the work of the Greek Hellenistic thinkers and came to influence Aquinas when Europe rediscovered Greek philosophy through Arabic translation. A common theme among these scholars was the praise of economic activity and even self-interested accumulation of wealth. The influence of earlier Greek and Hellenistic thought on the Muslim world began largely when Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun, who sponsored the translation of Greek texts into Arabic in the 9th century by Syrian Christians in Baghdad. But already by that time numerous Muslim scholars had written on economic issues, and early Muslim leaders had shown sophisticated attempts to enforce fiscal and monetary financing, use of deficit financing, use of taxes to encourage production, use of credit instruments for banking, including rudimentary savings and checking of accounts, a nd contract law. The origins of capitalism and free markets can be traced back to Caliphate where the first market economy and earliest form of merchant capitalism took root between the 8th and 12th centuries, which some refer to as Islamic capitalism. A vigorous monetary economy was created on the basis of expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar) and the integration of monetary areas that were previously independent. Innovative new business techniques and forms of business organizations were introduced by economists, merchants and traders during this time. Such innovations included the earliest trading companies, credit cards, big businesses, contracts, bills of exchange, long distance, international trade, the first forms of partnerships and the earliest forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama-al-mal), circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes, trusts, startup companies, savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates, bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double entry bookkeeping system, and lawsuits. MAIN FINDINGS After going through the history of the oriental school of thought in the previous section, the following economic aspects come out clearly as having been discovered and practiced by these early thinkers: The Concept of Production and Technology Ancient leaders stimulated private production and technology through various means including public recognition and awarding of prizes to successful inventors and producers. Economies of Scale Ways and Means was a short treatise on economic development written by Xenophon, which showed an understanding of the importance of taking advantage of economies of scale in production activity and advocated for laws promoting foreign merchants. Administration of Agricultural Land Agriculture was considered the most dignified occupation. In ancient India, the state took a leading part in developing agriculture and also demanded a fixed share of the gross produce. Price system The early law codes from Sumer were the first (written) economic formula, and had many attributes still in use in the current price system today, such as codified amounts of money for business deals (interest rates), fines in money for wrong doing, inheritance rules, laws concerning how private property is to be taxed or divided, etc. Grain and Labour Inputs Relationship The Erlenmeyer tablets gave a picture of Sumerian production in the Euphrates valley around 2, 200 2, 100 B.C., and showed an understanding of the relationship between grain and labour inputs (valued in female labour days) and outputs and an emphasis on efficiency in production. Output of Work The Egyptians measured work output in man-days. Monetary Units The Egyptian fraction and base 60 monetary units were extended in use and diversity to Greek, early Islamic culture, and medieval cultures. By 1202 A.D, Leonardo Pisa Fibonacci use of zero and Vedic-Islamic numerals motivated Europeans to apply zero as an exponent, birthing modern decimals 350 years later and hence the development of monetary units. Value Subjective personal value of goods was analyzed and compared with exchange value. Xenophon gave an example of a horse which may be of no use to a person who does not know how to handle it, but still has exchange value. Theory of Fair Exchange Xenophon presented what in hindsight could be seen as the foundation of a theory of fair exchange in the market which will result in the analysis of better fit or suitability to either party who wants to purchase the same item. Division of Labour Xenophon discussed the concept of division of labour, with reference to specialized cooks and workers in a shoe making shop who specialised in different tasks. Free Trade Parakramabahu I pioneered free trade during his reign, this is evident because a war was fought with Burma to defend free trade in ancient India. Welfare In India the leaders insisted on ensuring that the population as a whole has to be well looked after. For example, Chanakya focused on issues of welfare, for instance, redistribution of wealth during a famine and the collective ethics that held a society together. Standardized Coin Currency Emperor Qin Shi Huang of Ancient China, standardized coin currency throughout the old warring states after he unified them under a strong central bureaucracy. Low Cost Loans For Farmers In Ancient China Wang Anshis political faction of the New Policies Group enacted a series of reforms that centered on military reform, bureaucratic reform and economic reform. The economic reforms included low cost loans for farmers whom he considered to be the backbone of the Chinese economy in terms of production of goods and the greatest source of the land tax. Land Tax This was a source of revenue for the Ancient Chinese government from farmers, because during that period agriculture was the main driver of the economy. Fiscal and Monetary Financing The Muslim leaders enforced various policy measures including fiscal and monetary financing, use of deficit financing, use of taxes to encourage production and use of credit instruments for banking. Banking The early Muslim leaders had shown sophisticated attempts indlucing rudimentary savings and checking accounts, and contract law. Monetary Economy Between the 8th and 12th centuries, which some refer to as the period of Islamic capitalism, a vigorous monetary economy was created on the basis of expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar) and the integration of monetary areas that were previously independent of each other. SUGGESTIONS The social organization manifested by the ancient civilizations should be critically looked at and applied to solve some socioeconomic problems still present today, especially in the developing nations. The organization of government and formulation of policies during the ancient times leaves a lot to be admired. Governments of the modern economies should pick some of these values. The concept of politics being looked at separately from economics and policy formulation should be followed in todays modern economies for faster development and equality in the distribution of wealth. Welfare economics should be taken as seriously as it was taken in ancient times. For example, during periods of drought or famine, governments should not let particular groups of people suffer and instead they should distribute the available resources to the entire population. CONCLUSION Theres no question or doubt as to whether ancient economic philosophies are still in extensive use today. The modern economy has evolved over centuries to become what it is today. The study of the history of economic thought enables the student to appreciate the contributions various writers have made to development of economics as a discipline. Although ancient economic theories were sometimes unclear, contradictory, or presented in a rudimentary manner, they form the basis of economic analysis today. These theories are still being used today by the worlds largest and most complicated and sophisticated economies. BIBLIPGRAPHY Falgas, Matthew E.; Zarkadoulia, A. Effie, (2006). Arab Science in the Golden Age (750-1258) and Today. The FASEB Journal 20(10): 1581-1586. Hosseini, S. Hamid (2003). Contributions of Medieval Muslim Scholars to the History of Economic Thought and their Impact: A Refutation of the Schumpeterian Great Gap. S. Lowry (2003). Ancient Medieval Economics. In Biddle, Jeff E.; Davis, Jon B.; Samuels, Warren J.A Companion to the History of Economic Thought. Malden, MA: Blackwell pp. 11-27. Schumpeter, Joseph (1954). History of Economic Analysis. New York, Oxford University Press.